Households and domesticity in ancient world

How Valid is Mazarakis Ainian ‘s Hypothesis that Rulers ‘ Dwellings in the Early Iron Age were the Forerunner of the Urban Temples of Later Periods?In this paper I am traveling to review Mazarakis Ainian ‘s averment that there is a strong nexus between swayers ‘ homes and early temples in both map and architecture. I shall get down by placing what it is that separates a swayer ‘s home from the remainder of a community and shall so seek to place why a house would be used as a temple and the grounds for why there would hold been the passage to a dedicated spiritual edifice.House types of the Early Iron AgeThe period of the Early Iron Age ( EIA ) covers about 1100-700 BC and encompasses the so called ‘Dark Ages ‘ which followed the Mycenaean prostration and which ends in the passage to the Early Archaic period of the seventh century. It can be divided into the Protogeometric and Geometric periods of 1100-900 and 900-700BC severally. It is Mazarakis Ainian ‘s chief statement that due to the evident absence of temples of any sort within colonies prior to the mid eighth century BC, swayers ‘ homes alternatively served as Centres of communal cult ( 1988: 106 ) . It would hence be utile to look at the scope of house signifiers known from this early period, to place what separates elect lodging from other constructing types and besides the grounds they contain to propose ritual or spiritual activity. Although there are comparatively few colony sites staying, peculiarly 1s incorporating identifiable house remains or foundations, in comparing to subsequently periods in the Grecian World, Lang recognizes two chief types of house agreement ; detached and agglomerated. Both types of colony normally show that they were unplanned, having irregular street layouts which most frequently follow the local topography ( Lang 2007: 183 ) . The colony of Zagora on the island of Andros is demonstrative of the agglomerative house type while Emporio on Chios shows detached. This may nevertheless be brooding of colony size ; Zagora may good hold begun with a degage house agreement but its location on a drop top tableland and ensuing bounds on infinite, any addition in population may hold required new houses to be built in close propinquity to bing 1s. The alteration from little to big bunchs of houses can be seen in the programs drawn of the EIA and Archaic remains at the site ( fig. 1 ) . This has nevertheless led to several bookmans proposing that the house layout of Zagora reflects an early illustration of the courtyard house prevalent in the Classical Period ( Coucouzeli 2007: 169-181, Morris 1998 ) . The statement for this does non look wholly convincing, but I shall non turn to it farther in this paper. House types within these agreements besides varied. They were most normally composed of one or two little suites with rectangular, egg-shaped, apsidal or the somewhat less common round land programs ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: Ch. 1 ) . The agglomerative colony lent itself best to rectangular land programs as seen with Zagora ( figure 1 ) . Geographic location appears to hold played a portion in the distribution of the different house types with, for illustration, egg-shaped edifices of the Geometric Period being chiefly found in Attica and Euboea, the East Greek islands and West seashore Asia Minor but seldom identified elsewhere ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: 86 ) . It is the edifices of apsidal and rectangular programs that Mazarakis Ainian suggests were the ancestors of the Archaic temple and the most preferable designs for swayer ‘s homes. They can be divided into two groups ; those with a closed frontage are classified as ‘oikoi ‘ and those with an unfastened frontage are known as anta edifices ( 1997: 259 ) . At many of the colonies there is normally a home that stands out in footings of size, program and location from all others in the locality and it is these that are assumed swayers ‘ homes. Figure 2 high spots this in a comparing of elect homes of certain type, dwelling of a chief room with smaller rear chamber, and other domestic edifices of similar form.The House as TempleThe extent to which these likely elite houses show similarity in signifier and map to the first urban temples will now hold to be considered. To get down to reply this, the grounds for why these houses would be used as focal point of ritual ac tivity in the first topographic point demand to be looked into. M. Ainian calls these edifices swayers ‘ homes, but who were these powerful work forces and how far would their power have extended within their community? Mazarakis Ainian suggests that the swayers who inhabited these homes would hold been work forces who came to power on either a familial footing or through possessing desirable personal virtuousnesss ( 1997: 270 ) . In anthropological footings this would do them either heads or large work forces. He proposes that in some countries these powerful work forces may hold had their beginnings as local governors in the Late Helladic IIIB Period, and so would hold maintained control of little colonies after the Mycenaean prostration. In most countries colonies would hold been little made up of one or two drawn-out households, with the caput of the dominant or possibly oldest family going responsible for the direction of communal personal businesss ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: 375, 393 ) . Thomas and Conant express it good: The community is virtually an drawn-out household, and the small town leader, the caput of the most of import household. ( Thomas and Conant 1999: 52 ) This reflects what is thought from Homer ; that the Oikos consisting of drawn-out household of possibly three coevalss was the basic ‘kinship, residential and economic unit ‘ with any figure of oikoi doing up a community ( Donlan 1985: 299 ) . It would merely look logical that as portion of his control of communal responsibilities the ‘chief ‘ would besides be in charge of spiritual cult pattern. When the colony was little and lone consisting of the one affinity group the ideal topographic point to idolize a divinity or ascendant would hold been within his place. As the colony grew possibly this pattern continued as tradition. It is M. Ainian ‘s position that by literally lodging spiritual pattern the swayer was keeping his prestigiousness and control within the community ( 1997: 393 ) . The control of faith by a individual swayer, or double swayers in this peculiar instance, was continued into subsequently periods by the male monarchs of Sparta who cont inued to move as main priests, retaining their spiritual function ( Mazarakis Ainian 1988: 118 ) . This would look to propose that spiritual responsibilities would and could hold been controlled by the colony leader. There would therefore look to be several strong accounts as to why a swayer ‘s house would hold come to be used as a precursor to the temple. The archeological grounds is largely in support of this position, with domestic and ritual artifacts frequently found in association. Nichoria, a site in Messenia is a good illustration of this. At this site two peculiar house remains, known as unit IV-1 and unit IV-5, stand out from the remainder of the homes in the locality. As a consequence it could be said with comparative certainty that they held some particular importance within the community. Both were rather big apsidal edifices surrounded by little seemingly low position apsidal huts. The first, IV-1, has been dated to the tenth century BC while IV-5 most probably replaced it in the 9th. IV-1 is the most complete of the constructions and digging found that it contained a paved circle raised on a dais and covered with a bed of burned stuff ; nearby an sum of animate being bone was besides recovered. This suggested to the excavators that it may hold been a temple, with the paved circle operation as an communion table. Other di scoveries of a domestic nature were besides found nevertheless, proposing that it was possibly of importance both as a home and for its ritual significance ( Lukermann and Moody 1978: 94 ) . Ritual banqueting was another facet of ancient Greek spiritual pattern that M. Ainian identifies as perchance holding a case in point within the swayers ‘ home. Whitley though argues that the big sums of animate being castanetss and imbibing vass in association with fireplaces and benches in some homes does propose banqueting, but for the intent of doing bonds of commitment and beef uping authorization within the community ( Whitley 1991: 185 ) . Mazarakis Ainian does non deny that banquets were most likely taking topographic point for these grounds, but besides tenuously suggests that they would hold been held for ritual intents ( 1997: 379-80 ) . The grounds he cites for this nevertheless is limited at best, and he does rely somewhat on justification from the Homeric heroic poems in this peculiar country, despite his unfavorable judgment for other bookmans on this point. I am nevertheless inclined to take up his point of position in this affair. Although it is certain that fe asts did happen in swayers ‘ homes, the grounds available makes their purpose hard to find, but as antecedently argued, the swayer took on the function of ‘priest ‘ which makes it likely that some signifier of ritual dining must hold taken topographic point within his house alongside the other signifiers mentioned. The architectural similarities between swayers ‘ homes and early temples besides give acceptance to M. Ainian ‘s hypothesis. They portion similar land programs, being largely rectangular or apsidal and holding the entryway in the short side, significance that every cult edifice of the Late Geometric Period had an architectural opposite number in a domestic edifice of the same or earlier day of the month ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: 388 ) . Apparently so this demonstrates really close ties between the edifice types that must certainly stand for a continuance of tradition. Snodgrass nevertheless does foreground that shrines may hold existed as separate entities in earlier periods as direct ancestors of the classical temple, but because architectural criterions were lower they can non be differentiated from domestic constructions ( Snodgrass 1980: 58 ) . Some edifices, such as edifice C at Koukounaries, appear to portion greater similarity with banqueting halls than with abodes as they consist of merely the one big room without any noticeable divisions ( figure 3 ) . A individual unfastened infinite like this would look more ideal as a topographic point for banqueting than as a life infinite for the elite. This would propose a remarkable function and specific intent for these peculiar edifices instead than holding the double intent of brooding and Centre of cult that is cardinal to M. Ainian ‘s statement. If this was the instance so the temple, which fulfilled the function of communal banqueting hall and garnering topographic point in the Archaic Period, could be seen as holding its beginnings as a typical, separate construction in an urban scene at a much earlier day of the month. Lang though believes that EIA society would non hold been developed plenty socially or economically to let for the building of public edifices of remarkable map ( Lang 2007: 186 ) . Ideas of public and private infinite had non been developed and so the separation of domestic and sacred would non hold been necessary ; the demand for a typical temple edifice within the confines of the colony would non hold existed. Small discoveries from within many of the big constructions suggest a scope of domestic maps took topographic point within, instead than the remarkable grounds of dining that would be expected from a banqueting hall. The bulk of edifices believed to be swayers ‘ homes are divided into compartments or suites with edifice C at Koukounaries being one of merely several exclusions to this ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: 271 ) . His most convincing statement is that without these being classed as places of governing households, there would be small archeological grounds to propose Grecian society was stratified as opposed to classless during the EIA ( 1997: 271 ) . It would therefore look improbable in visible radiation of the grounds that temples would hold existed in their ain right during in urban contexts during this period. Rulers ‘ homes apparently would hold filled the function finally played by the temple, with the leader, the head or large adult male, executing the responsibilities of priest.Passage to TempleIt does look that swayers ‘ homes would hold been the Centre of at least some sort of ritual spiritual activity within EIA communities. So why was there the passage to the separate urban temple at the terminal of the 8th and beginning of the seventh century? These new temples, in the beginning at least, would hold carried out the same spiritual map as the houses of the elite had done, but were merely designed for this remarkable intent. This alteration must certainly hold represented new thoughts emerging of dividing public and privat e infinite and in bend reflect societal, political and even economic alteration. Prior to the mid eighth century, temples as edifices in their ain right merely appear to hold existed at extra-urban sanctuaries ; that is those which are outside any peculiar colony. One illustration of such a edifice is the rural shrine at Pachlitsani Agriada near Kavousi on Crete ( Mazarakis Ainian 1988: 116 ) . The edifice contained a bench on which idols stood and besides the remains of several graven images, perchance dedications to the goddess Eileithyia ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: 212 ) . It is dated tenuously from the manner of the graven images to the Protogeometric at the earliest and the bend of the 8th/7th century at the latest, with M. Ainian preferring the earlier day of the month. There was hence a case in point for edifices that were built for the exclusive intent of worship, either to a God, an ascendant or hero, but non within a colony. As has been mentioned the map of a temple was carried out by the swayers ‘ home and so there was no demand for such a edifice u ntil about 750BC.From so onwards this position changed and temples began to look in a figure of urban colonies across Greece. Of class the alterations taking topographic point did non make so at the same time across the full Grecian Universe, but 750BC appears to hold been the turning point from which the temple finally dominated as the primary focal point of spiritual cult. Mazarakis Ainian suggests that the passage to temples occurred as a consequence of political and societal alteration ; specifically the diminution of the monarchal system. He proposes that when the so called ‘basileus ‘ , the leader of the community, had control over the direction of communal personal businesss including spiritual facets, the sacred and non sacred were non separated. It is his sentiment therefore that the rise of temples from the mid eighth century was a direct consequence of the abolishment of monarchy in favor of an blue system. The former leader would hold lost many of his powers and in peculiar the control of cult activity ( Mazarakis Ainian 1988: 118 ) . This implies that control would hold passed to the ‘state ‘ as it existed at the clip, followed by the separation of the every-day into public and private, sacred and non sacred. This is one possible account as to the passage of cult from swayers ‘ brooding to temple and it is closely linked with the other chief account ; the rise of the polis, which shall be discussed shortly. Harmonizing to M. Ainian, the building of temples meant the remotion of cult from private to public control and so besides implied the remotion of power from the single i.e. the colony leader. Although it is widely held that power did bit by bit go more widely distributed between a figure of elect as opposed to being held by one adult male, and is seen in the archeological record by the progressively hard undertaking of placing swayers ‘ homes from the architectural remains of this period, it could non hold been the instance everyplace as evidenced by the continued presence of sovereign into the Archaic Period and beyond ( Mazarakis Ainian 1997: 382 ) . His logical thinking does non take into history that temples themselves, as monumental constructions, could besides be interpreted as shows of authorization and wealth of a high position person in the same manner swayers ‘ homes had done, while possibly at the same time in other countries stand foring competition between c ommunities and a show of the corporate power of the ‘state ‘ . The best counter-argument to his position must certainly be the instance of Sparta, as a good documented metropolis where the establishment of kingship was maintained, yet besides featured temples. He argues that for monumental temples to be constructed it required communal consensus, attempt and resources that would non hold been possible under a individual swayer ( 1997: 384 ) . Yet, by his ain statement, the earliest temples frequently resembled swayers ‘ homes in form every bit good as map, and so the really first temples at least could hold been constructed utilizing bing resources and work force ( 1988: 116 ) . He is nevertheless right in proposing that a swayer at the degree of ‘chief ‘ would be improbable to command adequate power in order to build a truly monumental edifice of any sort. The ‘Heroon ‘ at Lefkandi may be the exclusion to this ; at 47 meters long, 10 meters broad and dating to c.950BC it was bigger than anything else built in Greec e for more than the following 200 old ages. It has been suggested that this excessively may hold served as a home before being converted into a funerary construction ( De Waele 1998: 384 ) . It would once more confute M. Ainian ‘s theory as it was most probably constructed to house the people finally buried within it instead than for the broader community, but within the range of this paper shall be treated as an anomalousness. This aside so, it would look to come down to a inquiry non of who was in charge, the person or the many, but the phase of development as a society that they were at. Sparta was able to hold temples even under a dyarchy because it had developed into a polis and accordingly was at a phase of political development that allowed for the separation of the sacred and the non sacred, the populace from the private. It has even been argued that it was a necessary demand for the development of the metropolis province. Starr asserts that the outgrowth of purpose built temples indicates civic integrity merely possible through the societal construction and centralized authorities of the polis ( Starr 1986: 39 ) . Thomas and Conant agree to an extent with this position, proposing that spiritual commonalty would hold contributed towards the turning coherence of colonies and added to the sense of community beyond affinity groups. But they go farther in suggesting that this manifested itself in the bu ilding of grander constructions to honor the Gods and hence played a important portion in the development of the community and individuality of the polis ( Thomas and Conant 1999: 138-9 ) . From these two statements the inquiry is formed as to whether the temple was a consequence of the rise of the polis, or if the polis was merely possible through the creative activity of, or at least the societal, political and economic conditions necessary for the building of, the urban temple. To decently reply this would necessitate an in deepness expression into the rise of the polis which is beyond the bounds of this paper, but no affair what the reply it is clear that the outgrowth of both were inexorably linked. If, as harmonizing to Mazarakis Ainian, it was the displacement from monarchy to shared regulation that led to the demand for temples so it would go forth those metropoliss that did non travel through this political alteration as exclusions to the regulation. To give him the benefit of the uncertainty, what he is most likely seeking to state is that urban temples were a phenomenon of ‘state ‘ regardless of its signifier of authorities every bit long as the power was shared in some manner. I would therefore suggest that his usage of the term ‘monarchy ‘ is misdirecting in this context as he alternatively seems to be mentioning to the alteration from chiefdom degree regulation to that of province degree ; therefore indirectly besides back uping the thought that the beginnings of the polis was the ground for alteration.DecisionsSo is Mazarakis Ainian ‘s hypothesis valid? The grounds for the period he is analyzing is comparatively limited, embracing as it do es the so called Dark Age of Greece, but what is known from the archeological record does non look to confute his decisions. That is non to state nevertheless that it to the full endorses him either. In several illustrations presented the archeology could be interpreted in a figure of ways but would look to back up his statement through other indirect associations. This can peculiarly be seen in the grounds for banqueting within swayers ‘ homes which does be, but its ritual nature is difficult to find. Its reading as such is largely dependent on whether the colony swayer genuinely took on the mantle of priest as argued. Although there are several separate and valid statements in support of his point of view, in my sentiment if merely one facet such as the degree of authorization of a colony leader was thrown into uncertainty, the other statements would go well weaker. Despite this, holding considered the chief points of Mazarakis Ainian ‘s statement and the available grounds I have drawn similar decisions, and would therefore back up his hypothesis that swayers ‘ homes were so a precursor in both signifier and map of the early temple.BibliographyCoucouzeli, A. 2007. From Megaron to Oikos at Zagora. In R. Westgate, N. Fisher and J. Whitley ( explosive detection systems ) , Constructing Communities: House, Settlement and society in the Aegean and Beyond, 169-181.British School at Athens.Lang, F. 2007. House-Community-Settlement: The New Concept of Living in Archaic Greece. In R.Westgate, N. Fisher and J. Whitley ( explosive detection systems ) , Constructing Communities: House, Settlement and society in the Aegean and Beyond, 183-193. British School at Athens.Lukermann, F. and Moody, J. 1978. Nichoria and Vicinity: Colonies and Circulation. In G. Rapp andS. Aschenbrenner ( explosive detection systems ) , Excavations at Nichoria in Southw est Greece: Volume I. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.Mazarakis Ainian, A. 1997. From Rulers Dwellings to Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in Early Iron Age Greece 1100-700BC. Jonsered: Paul Astroms Forlag.Mazarakis Ainian, A. 1988. Early Grecian Temples: Their Beginning and Function. In R. Hagg, N. Marinatos and G. Nordquist ( explosive detection systems ) , Early Grecian Cult Practice, 105-119. Capital of sweden: Paul Astroms Forlag.Morris, I. 1998. Archaeology and Archaic Greek History. In N. Fisher and H. new wave Wees ( explosive detection systems ) , Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence, 1-91. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales.Snodgrass, A. 1980. Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment. London and Toronto: J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd.Starr, C. G. 1986. Individual and Community: the Rise of the Polis 800-500BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Thomas, C. G. and Conant, C. 1999. Citadel to City State. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press .Whitley, J. 1991. Style and Society in Dark Age Greece: The Changing Face of a Pre-Literate Society 1100-700BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Internet Addiction Essay

Abstract Problematic computer use is a growing social issue which is being debated worldwide. Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) ruins lives by causing neurological complications, psychological disturbances, and social problems. Surveys in the United States and Europe have indicated alarming prevalence rates between 1.5 and 8.2% [1]. There are several reviews addressing the definition, classification, assessment, epidemiology, and co-morbidity of IAD [2-5], and some reviews [6-8] addressing the treatment of IAD. The aim of this paper is to give a preferably brief overview of research on IAD and theoretical considerations from a practical perspective based on years of daily work with clients suffering from Internet addiction. Furthermore, with this paper we intend to bring in practical experience in the debate about the eventual inclusion of IAD in the next version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).Problematic computer use is a growing social issue which is bein g debated worldwide. Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) ruins lives by causing neurological complications, psychological disturbances, and social problems. Surveys in the United States and Europe have indicated alarming prevalence rates between 1.5 and 8.2% [1]. There are several reviews addressing the definition, classification, assessment, epidemiology, and co-morbidity of IAD [2-5], and some reviews [6-8] addressing the treatment of IAD. The aim of this paper is to give a preferably brief overview of research on IAD and theoretical considerations from a practical perspective based on years of daily work with clients suffering from Internet addiction. Furthermore, with this paper we intend to bring in practical experience in the debate about the eventual inclusion of IAD in the next version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Keywords: Addiction, Computer, Internet, reSTART, Treatment. INTRODUCTION The idea that problematic computer use meets criteria for an addiction, and therefore should be included in the next iteration of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), 4th ed. Text Revision [9] was first proposed by Kimberly Young, PhD in her seminal 1996 paper [10]. Since  that time IAD has been extensively studied and is indeed, currently under consideration for inclusion in the DSM-V [11]. Meanwhile, both China and South Korea have identified Internet addiction as a significant public health threat and both countries support education, research and treatment [12]. In the United States, despite a growing body of research, and treatment for the disorder available in out-patient and in-patient settings, there has been no formal governmental response to the issue of Internet addiction. While the debate goes on about whether or not the DSM-V should designate Internet addiction a mental disorder [12-14] people currently suffering from Internet addiction are seeking treatment. Because of our experience we support the development of uniform diagnostic criteria and the inclusion of IAD in the DSM-V [11] in order to advance public education, diagnosis and treatment of this important disorder. CLASSIFICATION There is ongoing debate about how best to classify the behavior which is characterized by many hours spent in non-work technology-related computer/Internet/video game activities [15]. It is accompanied by changes in mood, preoccupation with the Internet and digital media, the inability to control the amount of time spent interfacing with digital technology, the need for more time or a new game to achieve a desired mood, withdrawal symptoms when not engaged, and a continuation of the behavior despite family conflict, a diminishing social life and adverse work or academic consequences [2, 16, 17]. Some researchers and mental health practitioners see excessive Internet use as a symptom of another disorder such as anxiety or depression rather than a separate entity [e.g. 18]. Internet addiction could be considered an Impulse control disorder (not otherwise specified). Yet there is a growing consensus that this constellation of symptoms is an addiction [e.g. 19]. The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) recently released a new definition of addiction as a chronic brain disorder, officially proposing for the first time that addiction is not limited to substance use [20]. All addictions, whether chemical or behavioral, share certain characteristics including salience, compulsive use (loss of control), mood modification and the alleviation of distress, tolerance and withdrawal, and the continuation despite negative consequences. DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR IAD The first serious proposal for diagnostic criteria was advanced in 1996 by Dr. Young, modifying the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling [10]. Since then variations in both name and criteria have been put forward to capture the problem, which is now most popularly known as Internet Addiction Disorder. Problematic Internet Use (PIU) [21], computer addiction, Internet dependence [22], compulsive Internet use, pathological Internet use [23], and many other labels can be found in the literature. Likewise a variety of often overlapping criteria have been proposed and studied, some of which have been validated. However, empirical studies provide an inconsistent set of criteria to define Internet addiction [24]. For an overview see Byun et al. [25]. Beard [2] recommends that the following five diagnostic criteria are required for a diagnosis of Internet addiction: (1) Is preoccupied with the Internet (thinks about previous online activity or anticipate next online session); (2) Needs t o use the Internet with increased amounts of time in order to achieve satisfaction; (3) Has made unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back, or stop Internet use; (4) Is restless, moody, depressed, or irritable when attempting to cut down or stop Internet use; (5) Has stayed online longer than originally intended. Additionally, at least one of the following must be present: (6) Has jeopardized or risked the loss of a significant relationship, job, educational or career opportunity because of the Internet; (7) Has lied to family members, therapist, or others to conceal the extent of involvement with the Internet; (8) Uses the Internet as a way of escaping from problems or of relieving a dysphoric mood (e.g., feelings of helplessness, guilt, anxiety, depression) [2]. There has been also been a variety of assessment tools used in evaluation. Young’s Internet Addiction Test [16], the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire (PIUQ) developed by Demetrovics, Szeredi, and Pozsa [26] and the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) [27] are all examples of instruments to assess for this disorder. PREVALENCE The considerable variance of the prevalence rates reported for IAD (between 0.3% and 38%) [28] may be attributable to the fact that diagnostic criteria and assessment questionnaires used for diagnosis vary between countries and studies often use highly selective samples of online surveys [7]. In their  review Weinstein and Lejoyeux [1] report that surveys in the United States and Europe have indicated prevalence rates varying between 1.5% and 8.2%. Other reports place the rates between 6% and 18.5% [29]. â€Å"Some obvious differences with respect to the methodologies, cultural factors, outcomes and assessment tools forming the basis for these prevalence rates notwithstanding, the rates we encountered were generally high and sometimes alarming.† [24] ETIOLOGY There are different models available for the development and maintenance of IAD like the cognitive-behavioral model of problematic Internet use [21], the anonymity, convenience and escape (ACE) model [30], the access, affordability, anonymity (Triple-A) engine [31], a phases model of pathological Internet use by Grohol [32], and a comprehensive model of the development and maintenance of Internet addiction by Winkler & Dà ¶rsing [24], which takes into account socio-cultural factors (e.g., demographic factors, access to and acceptance of the Internet), biological vulnerabilities (e.g., genetic factors, abnormalities in neurochemical processes), psychological predispositions (e.g., personality characteristics, negative affects), and specific attributes of the Internet to explain â€Å"excessive engagement in Internet activities† [24]. NEUROBIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITIES It is known that addictions activate a combination of sites in the brain associated with pleasure, known together as the â€Å"reward center† or â€Å"pleasure pathway† of the brain [33, 34]. When activated, dopamine release is increased, along with opiates and other neurochemicals. Over time, the associated receptors may be affected, producing tolerance or the need for increasing stimulation of the reward center to produce a â€Å"high† and the subsequent characteristic behavior patterns needed to avoid withdrawal. Internet use may also lead specifically to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens [35, 36], one of the reward structures of the brain specifically involved in other addictions [20]. An example of the rewarding nature of digital technology use may be captured in the following statement by a 21 year-old male in treatment for IAD: â€Å"I feel technology has brought so much joy into my life. No other activity relaxes me or stimulates me like technolo gy. However, when depression hits, I tend to use technology as a way  of retreating and isolating.† REINFORCEMENT/REWARD What is so rewarding about Internet and video game use that it could become an addiction? The theory is that digital technology users experience multiple layers of reward when they use various computer applications. The Internet functions on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule (VRRS), as does gambling [29]. Whatever the application (general surfing, pornography, chat rooms, message boards, social networking sites, video games, email, texting, cloud applications and games, etc.), these activities support unpredictable and variable reward structures. The reward experienced is intensified when combined with mood enhancing/stimulating content. Examples of this would be pornography (sexual stimulation), video games (e.g. various social rewards, identification with a hero, immersive graphics), dating sites (romantic fantasy), online poker (financial) and special interest chat rooms or message boards (sense of belonging) [29, 37]. BIOLOGICAL PREDISPOSITION There is increasing evidence that there can be a genetic predisposition to addictive behaviors [38, 39]. The theory is that individuals with this predisposition do not have an adequate number of dopamine receptors or have an insufficient amount of serotonin/dopamine [2], thereby having difficulty experiencing normal levels of pleasure in activities that most people would find rewarding. To increase pleasure, these individuals are more likely to seek greater than average engagement in behaviors that stimulate an increase in dopamine, effectively giving them more reward but placing them at higher risk for addiction. MENTAL HEALTH VULNERABILITIES Many researchers and clinicians have noted that a variety of mental disorders co-occur with IAD. There is debate about which came first, the addiction or the co-occurring disorder [18, 40]. The study by Dong et al. [40] had at least the potential to clarify this question, reporting that higher scores for depression, anxiety, hostility, interpersonal sensitivity, and psychoticism were consequences of IAD. But due to the limitations of the study further research is necessary. THE TREATMENT OF INTERNET ADDICTION There is a general consensus that total abstinence from the Internet should not be the goal of the interventions and that instead, an abstinence from problematic applications and a controlled and balanced Internet usage should be achieved [6]. The following paragraphs illustrate the various treatment options for IAD that exist today. Unless studies examining the efficacy of the illustrated treatments are not available, findings on the efficacy of the presented treatments are also provided. Unfortunately, most of the treatment studies were of low methodological quality and used an intra-group design. The general lack of treatment studies notwithstanding, there are treatment guidelines reported by clinicians working in the field of IAD. In her book â€Å"Internet Addiction: Symptoms, Evaluation, and Treatment†, Young [41] offers some treatment strategies which are already known from the cognitive-behavioral approach: (a) practice opposite time of Internet use (discover patientâ €™s patterns of Internet use and disrupt these patterns by suggesting new schedules), (b) use external stoppers (real events or activities prompting the patient to log off), (c) set goals (with regard to the amount of time), (d) abstain from a particular application (that the client is unable to control), (e) use reminder cards (cues that remind the patient of the costs of IAD and benefits of breaking it), (f) develop a personal inventory (shows all the activities that the patient used to engage in or can’t find the time due to IAD), (g) enter a support group (compensates for a lack of social support), and (h) engage in family therapy (addresses relational problems in the family) [41]. Unfortunately, clinical evidence for the efficacy of these strategies is not mentioned. Non-psychological Approaches Some authors examine pharmacological interventions for IAD, perhaps due to the fact that clinicians use psychopharmacology to treat IAD despite the lack of treatment studies addressing the efficacy of pharmacological treatments. In particular, selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been used because of the co-morbid psychiatric symptoms of IAD (e.g. depression and anxiety) for which SSRIs have been found to be effective [42-46]. Escitalopram (a SSRI) was used by Dell’Osso et al. [47] to treat 14 subjects with impulsive-compulsive Internet usage disorder. Internet usage  decreased significantly from a mean of 36.8 hours/week to a baseline of 16.5 hours/week. In another study Han, Hwang, and Renshaw [48] used bupropion (a non-tricyclic antidepressant) and found a decrease of craving for Internet video game play, total game play time, and cue-induced brain activity in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex after a six week period of bupropion sustained release treatment. Methylphenidate (a psycho stimulant drug) was used by Han et al. [49] to treat 62 Internet video game-playing children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. After eight weeks of treatment, the YIAS-K scores and Internet usage times were significantly reduced and the authors cautiously suggest that methylphenidate might be evaluated as a potential treatment of IAD. According to a study by Shapira et al. [50], mood stabilizers might also improve the symptoms of IAD. In addition to these studies, there are some case reports of patients treated with escitalopram [45], citalopram (SSRI)- quetiapine (antipsychotic) combination [43] and naltrexone (an opioid receptor antagonist) [51]. A few authors mentioned that physical exercise could compensate the decrease of the dopamine level due to decreased online usage [52]. In addition, sports exercise prescriptions used in the course of cognitive behavioral group therapy may enhance the effect of the intervention for IAD [53]. Psychological Approaches Motivational interviewing (MI) is a client-centered yet directive method for enhancing intrinsic motivation to change by exploring and resolving client ambivalence [54]. It was developed to help individuals give up addictive behaviors and learn new behavioral skills, using techniques such as open-ended questions, reflective listening, affirmation, and summarization to help individuals express their concerns about change [55]. Unfortunately, there are currently no studies addressing the efficacy of MI in treating IAD, but MI seems to be moderately effective in the areas of alcohol, drug addiction, and diet/exercise problems [56]. Peukert et al. [7] suggest that interventions with family members or other relatives like â€Å"Community Reinforcement and Family Training† [57] could be useful in enhancing the motivation of an addict to cut back on Internet use, although the reviewers remark that control studies with relatives do not exist to date. Reality therapy (RT) is supposed t o encourage individuals to choose to improve their  lives by committing to change their behavior. It includes sessions to show clients that addiction is a choice and to give them training in time management; it also introduces alternative activities to the problematic behavior [58]. According to Kim [58], RT is a core addiction recovery tool that offers a wide variety of uses as a treatment for addictive disorders such as drugs, sex, food, and works as well for the Internet. In his RT group counseling program treatment study, Kim [59] found that the treatment program effectively reduced addiction level and improved self-esteem of 25 Internet-addicted university students in Korea. Twohig and Crosby [60] used an Acceptance & Commitment Therapy (ACT) protocol including several exercises adjusted to better fit the issues with which the sample struggles to treat six adult males suffering from problematic Internet pornography viewing. The treatment resulted in an 85% reduction in viewing at post-treatment with results being maintained at the three month follow-up (83% reduction in viewing pornography). Widyanto and Griffith [8] report that most of the treatments employed so far had utilized a cognitive-behavioral approach. The case for using cognitive-behavioral thera py (CBT) is justified due to the good results in the treatment of other behavioral addictions/impulse-control disorders, such as pathological gambling, compulsive shopping, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating-disorders [61]. Wà ¶lfling [5] described a predominantly behavioral group treatment including identification of sustaining conditions, establishing of intrinsic motivation to reduce the amount of time being online, learning alternative behaviors, engagement in new social real-life contacts, psycho-education and exposure therapy, but unfortunately clinical evidence for the efficacy of these strategies is not mentioned. In her study, Young [62] used CBT to treat 114 clients suffering from IAD and found that participants were better able to manage their presenting problems post-treatment, showing improved motivation to stop abusing the Internet, improved ability to control their computer use, improved ability to function in offline relationships, improved ability to abstain from sexually explicit online material, improved ability to engage in offline activities, and improved ability to achieve sobriety from problematic applications. Cao, Su and Gao [63] investigated the effect of group CBT on 29 middl e school students with IAD and found that IAD scores of the experimental group were lower than of the control group  after treatment. The authors also reported improvement in psychological function. Thirty-eight adolescents with IAD were treated with CBT designed particularly for addicted adolescents by Li and Dai [64]. They found that CBT has good effects on the adolescents with IAD (CIAS scores in the therapy group were significant lower than that in the control group). In the experimental group the scores of depression, anxiety, compulsiveness, self-blame, illusion, and retreat were significantly decreased after treatment. Zhu, Jin, and Zhong [65] compared CBT and electro acupuncture (EA) plus CBT assigning forty-seven patients with IAD to one of the two groups respectively. The authors found that CBT alone or combined with EA can significantly reduce the score of IAD and anxiety on a self-rating scale and improve self-conscious health status in patients with IAD, but the effect obtained by the combined therapy was better. Multimodal Treatments A multimodal treatment approach is characterized by the implementation of several different types of treatment in some cases even from different disciplines such as pharmacology, psychotherapy and family counseling simultaneously or sequentially. Orzack and Orzack [66] mentioned that treatments for IAD need to be multidisciplinary including CBT, psychotropic medication, family therapy, and case managers, because of the complexity of these patients’ problems. In their treatment study, Du, Jiang, and Vance [67] found that multimodal school-based group CBT (including parent training, teacher education, and group CBT) was effective for adolescents with IAD (n = 23), particularly in improving emotional state and regulation ability, behavioral and self-management style. The effect of another multimodal intervention consisting of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT), family therapy, and CT was investigated among 52 adolescents with IAD in China. After three months of treatment, the scores on an IAD scale (IAD-DQ), the scores on the SCL-90, and the amount of time spent online decreased significantly [68]. Orzack et al. [69] used a psychoeducational program, which combines psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral theoretical perspectives, using a combination of Readiness to Change (RtC), CBT and MI interventions to treat a group of 35 men involved in problematic Internet-enabled sexual behavior (IESB). In this group treatment, the quality of life increased and the level of depressive symptoms decreased  after 16 (weekly) treatment sessions, but the level of problematic Internet use failed to decrease significantly [69]. Internet addiction related symptom scores significantly decreased after a group of 23 middle school students with IAD were treated with Behavioral Therapy (BT) or CT, detoxification treatment, psychosocial rehabilitation, personality modeling and parent training [70]. Therefore, the authors concluded that psychotherapy, in particular CT and BT were effective in treating middle school students with IAD. Shek, Tang, and Lo [71] described a multi-level counseling program designed for young people with IAD based on the responses of 59 clients. Findings of this study suggest this multi-level counseling program (including counseling, MI, family perspective, case work and group work) is promising to help young people with IAD. Internet addiction symptom scores significantly decreased, but the program failed to increase psychological well-being significantly. A six-week group counseling program (including CBT, social competence training, training of self-control strategies and training of communication skills) was shown to be effective on 24 Internet-addicted college students in China [72]. The authors reported that the adapted CIAS-R scores of the experimental group were significantly lower than those of the control group post-treatment. The reSTART Program The authors of this article are currently, or have been, affiliated with the reSTART: Internet Addiction Recovery Program [73] in Fall City, Washington. The reSTART program is an inpatient Internet addiction recovery program which integrates technology detoxification (no technology for 45 to 90 days), drug and alcohol treatment, 12 step work, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), experiential adventure based therapy, Acceptance and Commitment therapy (ACT), brain enhancing interventions, animal assisted therapy, motivational interviewing (MI), mindfulness based relapse prevention (MBRP), Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR), interpersonal group psychotherapy, individual psychotherapy, individualized treatments for co-occurring disorders, psycho- educational groups (life visioning, addiction education, communication and assertiveness training, social skills, life skills, Life balance plan), aftercare treatments (monitoring of technology use, ongoing psychotherapy and group work), a nd continuing care (outpatient treatment) in an individualized, holistic approach. The first  results from an ongoing OQ45.2 [74] study (a self-reported measurement of subjective discomfort, interpersonal relationships and social role performance assessed on a weekly basis) of the short-term impact on 19 adults who complete the 45+ days program showed an improved score after treatment. Seventy-four percent of participants showed significant clinical improvement, 21% of participants showed no reliable change, and 5% deteriorated. The results have to be regarded as preliminary due to the small study sample, the self-report measurement and the lack of a control group. Despite these limitations, there is evidence that the program is responsible for most of the improvements demonstrated. CONCLUSION As can be seen from this brief review, the field of Internet addiction is advancing rapidly even without its official recognition as a separate and distinct behavioral addiction and with continuing disagreement over diagnostic criteria. The ongoing debate whether IAD should be classified as an (behavioral) addiction, an impulse-control disorder or even an obsessive compulsive disorder cannot be satisfactorily resolved in this paper. But the symptoms we observed in clinical practice show a great deal of overlap with the symptoms commonly associated with (behavioral) addictions. Also it remains unclear to this day whether the underlying mechanisms responsible for the addictive behavior are the same in different types of IAD (e.g., online sexual addiction, online gaming, and excessive surfing). From our practical perspective the different shapes of IAD fit in one category, due to various Internet specific commonalities (e.g., anonymity, riskless interaction), commonalities in the underlying behavior (e.g., avoidance, fear, pleasure, entertainment) and overlapping symptoms (e.g., the increased amount of time spent online, preoccupation and other signs of addiction). Nevertheless more research has to be done to substantiate our clinical impression. Despite several methodological limitations, the strength of this work in comparison to other reviews in the international body of literature addressing the definition, classification, assessment, epidemiology, and co-morbidity of IAD [2-5], and to reviews [6-8] addressing the treatment of IAD, is that it connects theoretical considerations with the clinical practice of interdisciplinary mental health experts working for years in the field of Internet addiction. Furthermore, the current work gives a good  overview of the current state of research in the field of internet addiction treatment. Despite the limitations stated above this work gives a brief overview of the current state of research on IAD from a practical perspective and can therefore be seen as an important and helpful paper for further research as well as for clinical practice in particular.

Mcdonald’s History

McDonald’s Bar-B-Que, was a â€Å"Drive-in Restaurant† in 1940 which was conceptualized by Richard (Dick) and Maurice (Mac) McDonald’s. Drive-in concept was a new and unique idea to adapt which caught everyone’s attention (Our Company, 2011). The initial mascot of the famous fast food restaurant was â€Å"Speedee. † â€Å"Speedee† was a hamburger-headed man wearing a chef’s hat (McDonald’s, 2011). However, running a restaurant is not a piece of cake, thus, by 1948 they made alterations in their menu by reducing the available food items and calls itself a â€Å"self-service drive-in restaurant. The new nine items presented in 1948 were: hamburger, cheeseburger, soft drinks, milk, coffee, potato chips and a slice of pie (Our Company, 2011). In the following year potato chips were replaced by French fries along with additional ‘triple thick milkshakes. ’ In 1954, enters a new significant character for McDonald’s, Ray Kroc. He was fascinated by the profitable new concept by the brothers whom produced best quality product, on the contrary to providing a small menu in a small restaurant. At the same time the Dick and Mac McDonald’s were in search of an agent to help them begin nationwide franchising (Our Company, 2011). Their vision turned into reality by the help of Ray Kroc. In 1955, Kroc opens a McDonald’s in Desplaines, Illinois which brought in a lot of cash for the corporation (History, 2011). And by the end of 1950s they managed to open 100 McDonald’s restaurant. Following decade started, the 60s, McDonald being itself, so successful, opened a Hamburger University in Illinois. During this year they created McDonald into a proper restaurant with indoor seating (Our Company, 2011). They received their first TV commercial hit via their new mascot Ronald in 1966. In the following year, 1967, McDonald’s goes international and today, 2011, it has restaurants in 118 countries all around the world. It is now known to be the world’s largest hamburger fast food restaurant serving more than 52 million customers daily (History, 2011). And Thailand ranked as number 28 by nation master manages to have approximately 88 McDonalds’ restaurants (Food Statistics, 2011). In 1985, the first McDonald’s restaurant opened in Amarin Plaza, Bangkok, Thailand. McDonald provides protein-full menus including: chicken, pork, beef and seafood. Throughout time McDonald’s in Thailand has embraced the early-morning working culture and started Big Breakfast. Moreover, they also present customer favorites such as McNuggets, burgers, fried chicken and ice cream (History, 2011). Although, McDonald’s in Thailand follow strict 5 operating principles or philosophy you may call it which includes QSC & V. These letters represent: Quality, Service, Cleanliness and Value. McDonald’s main focus is to produce 100% total customer satisfaction. However, focusing on the 5 figure formula to operate McDonald’s successfully; firstly, quality, is regarding the food presented to the customers. For example, McDonald’s consistently provides their customers with healthy, best standard and tasty products. Secondly, service embraces the efficient and friendly service available at McDonald’s. Their focus on service makes sure that McDonald’s can maximize customer satisfaction offering full help via provided techniques and training. Thirdly, cleanliness was first magnified by Ray Kroc back in 1955. From that day till today, McDonald’s makes sure they present themselves cleanly. Cleanliness in a fast food restaurant has to deal with a clean kitchen, dining area, rest rooms and the exterior. Lastly, value is all about the experience you pay for and prices of the products at McDonald’s. The experience they allow you to have is the environment, fine service and enjoyable food (QSC&V, 2011). Reference http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_company/mcd_history.html?

Should people ban testing on animals based upon people unethical Essay

Should people ban testing on animals based upon people unethical research of animal - Essay Example Since decades, animals are used for the purpose of testing in order to accomplish the objectives of experiments. Scientifically, animal testing is termed to be beneficial for many inventions, but it is also not without certain ethical issues related with animal rights. The practice of animal testing has its long story, which can be found rooted since when the ancient Greek people used animal for their experiments and in many rituals to gain beauty and good health. While then the human society had limited concern about the living rights of animals, modern day philosophers and activists have been into debates as to whether animal testing should be banned with due consideration to its positive contributions towards the development of the society (PRISM, â€Å"The Connection between Animal Testing, the Environment, and Human Health†). Emphasizing this context, the objective of the paper is to argue regarding the negatives and positives associated with animal testing in order to take a stand in opposition of banning animal testing. Hence, the thesis of the paper will aim to support animal testing for innovation and for the development of medical research emphasizing its positive effects and critically assessing the negatives associated with the same. Arguments in contradiction to animal testing have long been encouraged by activists and philosophists in the society. However, it cannot be ignored that there are some fields where the experiments upon animal are mandatory in nature for the overall enhancement of the society and also for new inventions. Illustratively, the biomedical field is such an example wherein animal testing is mandatory for the research to be a success. It is evident, that scientists in the present day, with the help of advance technology, are inventing new options in the area of medical research to support the human life system. For instance, researchers, through animal

AVIATION SAFETY MANAGEMENT Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

AVIATION SAFETY MANAGEMENT - Term Paper Example This rise in air traffic negatively affects the normal operations of the air traffic organizations. For instance, the air traffic congestion can significantly threaten the aircrafts safety which is the ultimate aim of the civil aviation authorities and airlines around the world. The safety of the aircraft is the primary concern for any airline and the civil aviation authority as it contains hundreds of passengers at a time. Upon accident, the aircraft will be destroyed however, with it hundreds of lives will also be lost. This aspect makes the air traffic flow a top priority and concern for the civil aviation authorities around the world. Though there are various independent factors that affect an aircraft resulting into the loss of lives. Prominent ones are: natural disasters or causes, technological fault developed in the aircraft, human error by pilot or the air traffic controller, human error by the engineering maintenance staff before giving the clearance for take-off, communication and related barriers that limit the understanding and comprehension of pilots and air traffic control officers, etc. Barnier and Brisset (2002) undertook a research to devise a strategy to increase the capacity of airspace apart from reducing the challenges that the Air Traffic Controllers have to face while handling unlimited number of flights landing and taking-off every minute. Furthermore, Barnier and Brisset (2002) focused on the dire need of the airlines to cut down their operational costs by receiving faster clearances to land or take-off which consumes their most of the flights time. They focused on the Air Traffic Flow Management (AFTM) technique to resolve this problem that the European Air Traffic Flow Management has to encounter every day. Since 1960, more than hundred aircrafts have met a fatal accident in the United States alone. There are various factors that were involved in these accidents. However, air traffic controllers play the most significant

Science Meets Real Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Science Meets Real Life - Essay Example This conclusion also has a chance of being faulty. There exists a chance of error in both of the final decisions sought over in the above description. To ensure our conclusion even more we enter our house once more and turn on the switch of another lamp to check whether it turns on or not. If this new lamp also would not turn on then it would be certain that there is no electricity in the house. The way this would be scientifically assessed is narrated a follows: Analysis: Either the bulb would glow or it would not glow. If the bulb glows in the second lamp then it may be decided that there has been a fault in the wiring of the initial lamp that was attempted to be turned on when the person reached home. There exists the possibility of a POSSIBLE ERROR here and that is that the lamp may not have been plugged into the socket properly. Just as the possibility of the lamp not being plucked into the socket was discussed, this possibility may also be assumed for the initial lamp. Hence the hypothetical testing of possibilities behind the non- functioning of the lamp continues unless and until all possible situations have been addressed. If the water is not coming out of the main water outlet then there arise two possibilities. Either there is no water in the overhead task or the tap has malfunctioned and is not letting water through. In order to clarify this situation the following scientific experiment is conducted: Analysis: If there is now water emission from any of the taps within the house then it may well be concluded that there must not be any water in the overhead water tank. However, if water is coming out of the other taps it may be assessed that there might be an airlock in the tap of the Garage that restricted water from coming out of it. Thus it was decided that if there was no water in the overhead tank then the tank would be filled by turning the water filling motor on. On the other hand if only the garage tap would

Schizophrenia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Schizophrenia - Research Paper Example Schizophrenia in general as a disorder has a peculiar symptom, namely that the affected person may hear sounds that surrounding people don’t hear. They have a curious feeling that other people are trying to read their minds or in other words are gaining control of their thoughts. They are superstitious enough to harm themselves as well. This can frighten people with the illness and exclude them from the society because of extreme agitation. This brain disorder is considered to be costly and time consuming due to the behavior of the patient. Superstitions are common feelings of the patient which are caused by low intake of the medicine. First generation and second generation medicines are introduced for the patients who deal with certain types of the syndrome. Trust should be developed while treating a patient with schizophrenia. Introduction: Schizophrenia is basically a brain disorder which is found to be persistent, severe, and even disabling the brain and it has affected pe ople throughout history. About 1 percent of Americans have this illness. People with schizophrenia may give a feeling as if they are lost in thoughts. Such person can sit for hours without moving or talking. One cannot judge a person until he/she speaks about what they are really thinking. Depending upon the conditions and causes families and society are affected by schizophrenia too. It has been found that people suffering from schizophrenia have difficulty within their social circle, maintaining a job or even taking care of themselves, so they rely on others for help. With developing research and more effective medications, researchers are finding solutions to this brain disorder. Use of medicine and treatment helps relieve many symptoms of schizophrenia, but often people fight with symptoms throughout their lives. However, many people with schizophrenia can lead rewarding and meaningful lives in their communities. (Regier DA, 1993) Prevalence of the Disease Several factors affect the prevalence of schizophrenia, such as the recognition and reaction to treatment. The prevalence of schizophrenia can be calculated either from cases registered or field surveys. Researchers report that figures have been hypothesized that prevalence estimates would differ between lifetime, period, and point prevalence. Estimates were calculated as a proportion by dividing the total number of individuals who had the disorder by the total population at risk including those with the disorder. It is predicted that males from urban areas and migrants would have a larger proportion as compared to females. (Bhugra, 2005) Schizophrenia rarely occurs in children but affects men and women equally. It occurs regardless of religion and ethnic groups around the world. Mainly symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions usually commence between ages 16 to 30. Men are exposed more to symptoms a little earlier than women. Most of the time, people do not get schizophrenia after age 45. (SR, 2004 ) Schizophrenia in teens can be difficult to diagnose, because some of the first signs can include a change in emotional behavior, change of friends, low performance in education, sleep problems, and bad temper that are common among teens. However, a series of factors can forecast the disorder for up to 80 percent of youth who are at high risk of

A written summary of the article .The Ordinary Heroes of Taj Assignment

A written summary of the article .The Ordinary Heroes of Taj - Assignment Example Guests at the Japanese restaurant within the hotel were also caught up in the attack. They were instructed to hide beneath their tables, and the waiters formed a human shield between them and the attackers. Later, upon evacuation, the guests were allowed to leave first with the staff following close behind. The head waiter who was in charge, Thomas Varghese, did not make it out since the attackers shot him as he was the last one to leave the room. During the attack, 31 people lost their lives, 11 of whom were staff members at the hotel. Most of the dead staff members had sacrificed their lives to protect their guests from getting hurt during the incident. There was wide acclaim over the dedication of the staff at the hotel due to the manner in which they conducted themselves; not only were they calm, but they also went out of their way to help their guests to safety (Raina and Rohit, 5). This level of commitment by employees had not seen before, given that there were no official policies that existed at the time to deal with such a scenario. The human resource approach used at the hotel hires people based on devotion and integrity and trains them for 18 months; six more than the regular 12 months in other establishments. The result was a team of loyal employees who had the best interests of the customers at the core of all their

Cubism or Fauvism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cubism or Fauvism - Essay Example Unlike Fauvism, Cubism breaks up objects, analyzes and re-assembles them in abstracted forms. Therefore, rather than view objects from a single viewpoint, Cubism depicts its subjects in multiple viewpoints, representing them in greater context. Like in Picasso’s Houses on the hill, he uses block-resembling, cubic buildings to portray an image of houses on a divergent, rather than convergent, perspective. The intersection of the surfaces at random angles eliminates depth and a central vanishing point. This is further enhanced by the use of shades and the way colors are limited. Fauvism, on the other hand, used strong colors, which were not their subjects’ natural colors, to successfully bring out strong emotions, like shown by Henri Matisse’s Dance. He based it on his previous work that used less details and paler colors. It shows five, nude dancing figures in deep red paint. They are set against the sky in deep blue and a green landscape. Reflecting the artistâ⠂¬â„¢s interest in primitive art, Dance stretches out three clearly clashing colors on the canvas, with each drawing attention to itself. By reducing its subjects into their geometric forms, Cubism was able to make works done in 2-D appear as if they were done in 3-D. Artists were able to use geometric styles to simultaneously show a subject in more than one aspect. In Fauvism, the objects were painted in very simple designs and styles, with strong colors compensating for the simplicity. Although they did not appear realistic in comparison to real life objects., they were more realistic in comparison to objects painted in Cubist style. Part B The style I find more appealing is Fauvism. Cubism presents a more complicated form of art that is not easily translated. For example, in Picasso’s Houses on the hill, one may not recognize within the first glance that they are actually houses shown in a view that flows upward. This aspect is emphasized by the way the houses are intersec ted, shown from different angles on the same surface and lack of depth. The lack of depth also gives the impression that the furthest houses are above, rather than behind, those in the foreground. On the other hand, in Fauvism, the emotions brought to mind by the style of colors are immediately felt (Gerdts, 1997). For example, they way Matisse puts three exaggerated colors next to each other in Dance, he is able to portray the sky and earth as active components of the painting, rather than mere backgrounds. The warmth of the deep red dancers arranged in a ring against a cool background in blue-green creates a feeling of the rhythmical succession that is usually conveyed by dancing. A viewer can instantly feel the emotional liberation and

Systems analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Systems analysis - Essay Example How are they ever going to reach out to far-sought village areas in third world countries while innovating itself the way no other company has ever exceeded them? If such is the case, then Google has to expound the global reach of the internet not only literally but as well as figuratively. Reaching novel systems analysis and design also requires the need for first world countries to reach out to third world entities who are unable to out-race their first world counterparts. Information technology has not only been confounded to software and hardware problems, requirements, design, and analysis. With the fast rise of developed nations, companies like Google are also socially responsible for reaching out to rural communities and bring them outside their shells, gradually introduce them to global technology, and make them an active integral part of information technology. In today’s systems analysis and design, there is a need to emphasize social responsibility in order to accom plish one’s mission, vision, and goals. And what makes Google ahead of everyone else is that they were able to realize the need to devote their time, effort, energy, and resources to rural communities in India to be able to send the message that Google is here to help.

A Clausewitzian Analysis of the Thirty Year’s War Essay Example for Free

A Clausewitzian Analysis of the Thirty Year’s War Essay When applying the Clausewitzian paradoxical trinity paradigm to the Thirty Year’s War, we see that the catalyst that sparked much of the conflict during that time was driven by civil unrest of the ‘People’ engendered by fear of religious persecution. Beginning with the divergence of religious and secular leadership resulting from the Protestant Reformation which was exacerbated by the rigidity of Catholic monarchy, we see how widespread fomenting dissent within the German States lead to the decline of the Habsburg ruling family. In his work, On War, Clausewitz describes the essence of war as a continual interplay between the ‘paradoxical trinity’ of the people, the government, and the military. As we apply this framework to the complex and varied influences of the early 17th century, this model provides clarity in determining the root causes that shaped this era an era that has come to be characterized by the rampant internecine warfare of religious and political factions of the time. The Protestant Reformation, which had begun to take traction with many of the expansion-minded German nobility, set the stage for the conflict between Catholic and Protestant factions throughout the German Provinces. With the signing of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, Lutheranism had been officially recognized by the Holy Roman Empire. The major outcome of this treaty enabled the Protestant movement in Germany to claim lands once belonging to the Catholics. This result had great appeal to the more secular rulers throughout Europe who sought to disentangle themselves from papal oversight and influence. Under the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor Mathias, Protest and Catholic factions had gained equity of representation and influence throughout the Hapsburg controlled regions. This unification was driven, in part, by the larger Muslim threat presented by the Ottoman Empire. This truce, however, was an uneasy one with all the characteristics of a 17th century Cold War between the two religious sects, and as the balance shifted with the rise of a new monarch, each side began an arms race to defend their interests from the other. The appointment of the intransigent Catholic monarch, Ferdinand II, posed a threat to Protestants throughout the various Habsburg controlled territories. Religious hegemony of individual States was the preferred condition of German rulers in the early 17th century. The religion of the ruler shall be the religion of his subjects† was a motto that was very near and dear to many of the European rulers of the day. This rang especially true among the Catholic territories where the Church exercised much greater political influence than their Protestant counterparts. So when the balance of Protestant and Catholic controlled States was disrupted with the ascension of Ferdinand II a widely acknowledged Catholic zealot to the throne of Bohemia it brought a face to the fears of the Protestant nobility. In an effort to limit his religious edicts, the Protestant Bohemians entreated for religious freedoms of their newly throned monarch. The harsh dismissal of these entreaties was the spark that ignited the powder keg that Central Europe had become, and the subsequent â€Å"Defenestration of Prague† resulting in the death of Ferdinand’s representatives by Protestant rebels signaled the start of uprisings in Hungary, Transylvania, and the rest of Bohemia. This uprising spread throughout Europe, drawing in both political and religious powers to become decisively engaged. The unresolved religious dissent among the people and the Habsburg ruler served as a lodestone for conflict throughout Europe and lead ultimately to the decline of the Holy Roman Empire into several small autonomous territories. Early successes by the Hapsburg against the Bohemians, and later the Palatinate States, led to the direct involvement of France and Holland allying against the Hapsburgs. Their efforts were later supported by England, Sweden, Denmark, Savoy and Venice. These State actors all had their own agendas but ostensibly acted in support of the Protestant rebellion whose secular distancing from Church control appealed to both the ruling classes and commoners alike. The war ravaged the German countryside and some estimates have nearly half of the population were killed, wounded, or displaced, with some areas such as Wurttemberg losing nearly 75% of their population. The Peace of Westphalia which was signed in the fall of 1648 signified the end of the war. Alsace became part of France, while Sweden gained much of the German Baltic coast, while the Emperor had to recognize the sovereign rights of the German princes, and equality between Protestant and Catholic states, while Spain, in a separate peace, finally acknowledged the independence of the Dutch Republic. † The Habsburg crown was now, more than ever, subject to the auspices of the Imperial Diet, also termed the Reichstag or German Parliament, which exists to this day. When viewing the root cause of the Thirty Year’s War under the Clausewitzian perspective, we see that the â€Å"People† node of the paradoxical trinity was the most influential during that time. This war is often termed the War of Religion as religion was either the root cause of conflict, or the excuse used to mask political machination in efforts to expand power and influence. But in truth, religion was merely the vehicle by which contention among the commoners and landowners took shape to facilitate change of the current governmental structure. Upon the conclusion of the war, after the smoke had cleared and the damage was tallied, Habsburg power was irrevocably shattered and France emerged as the new epicenter of European influence and might. But the consequences extended beyond the immediate outcomes of the war. The resulting Peace of Westphalia changed the very relationships between citizens and the State, extricating religion from the government and laying the foundation for modern civic relationships of today’s democracies.

The Wave A movie Essay Example for Free

The Wave A movie Essay Motivation is a powerful force working in the psyche of every human mind that consciously pushes an individual toward certain tasks in order to reach a desired goal. In The Wave, a group of high school students desire to be apart of a community and to hold power blinded them of reason and moral, which eventually led them to a tragic downfall. In this movie, motivation played a crucial role in the gradual destructive behavioral changes of the students at Palo Altos Cubberly High. The psychological and behavioral changes initially began to evolve when a history teacher, Mr. Ross, encouraged students to participate in an experiment on forming a movement called The Wave. The students were immediately entranced by the idea and begin to follow every instruction given by Mr. Ross without hesitation. Soon, they were practicing the rules and drills of The Wave outside the history classroom by assimilated them into their regular everyday life. Soon, the students buried their previously learned values of individualism and morality to adjust to the newly formed community. This community later became almost cult-like, in which members were so intensely involved that they started to act hostile and sometimes violent towards anti-Wavers and non-members in the name of The Wave. The initial factor that influenced the history class to follow Mr. Ross ideas was intrinsic motivation. The novelty of the experiment first triggered the curiosity of students and they performed every duty with enjoyment. However, as the group began to take the experiment more seriously, this seemly innocent interest turned into an obsession. Students used the movement as an excuse to harass and intimidate other children. They now remain not only for inner-pleasure but also for power. Other students from outside the classroom also fell under the spell of The Wave. These later recruited Wavers motives were not intrinsic for their sole reason for joining was to gain approval from their peers and to avoid harassment. Mr. Ross provided, with his experiment, an environment where a persons inner fascism can emerge and take control. The Wave worked as a metaphorical switch that turned on some hidden unconscious desires for individuals to shut their mind and to live a simpler life by accepting orders from a  confident leader who insist that he has all the answers. Most people possess the need to identify with a group that shares a common objective. However, sometimes this need only motives people to do what is good for the group instead of what is good for themselves as individuals. Many students in this movie failed to see the larger picture of how The Wave was robbing them of their right to opinions, individuality and freedom. The Wave is a powerful and emotional journey that opened our eyes to the existence of fascism in the most unlikely place, a high school in California. The movie demonstrated how people could easily be manipulated under certain circumstances and blinded by artificial motives. Just as the Germans fell under Nazis rule during Hitlers reign, other groups or community like the high school in The Wave could also easily become the next victim of fascism.

Strategies to Maximise Shareholder Value

Strategies to Maximise Shareholder Value Introduction Firms may have different objectives to achieve. However in theory, a firm should set its objectives to increase its value for its owners. Shareholders are the owners of a firm. Therefore according to theory maximising shareholders wealth is the fundamental objective of a firm. (Watson Head –Corporate Finance principles and practice 2007) Investors generally expect to earn satisfactory returns on their investments as they require increasing the value of their investments as much as possible. This is usually determined by dividend payout and or capital gains by increasing the market value of the share price. The managers of the company act on behalf of the investors, such as operating day to day activities and making decisions within the business. In another way they do have the control of the business entity. However, firms may have other objectives to achieve such as maximising of profits, growth and increasing its markets share. When achieving these objectives of a firm, conflicts may arise as a result of ownership and control. Managers may make their decisions on their own interests rather than achieving investors wealth. Discussing the investor related goals as described earlier, in theory behaviour of management should be consistent towards maximising shareholders wealth, enhancing the value of the business (Basely Brigham- Essentials of Managerial Finance).Value of the business is measured by valuing firms price of shares. Its essential to consider maximising of stock prices, and its impact to the investors and the economy as a whole simultaneously. Maximising profits is also an objective of a firm. It is determined by maximising the firms net profits. It is also can be described as a short term objective whilst maximising the value of the company is a long term objective for a firm (Financial Management –Kaplan Publishers 2009). Therefore it is not necessary, maximising profits as maximising shareholders wealth because there are number of potential problems can be occurred adapting to an objective of profit maximisation. It will be discussed in the latter part of the report. Earnings per share (EPS) is one of the main indicators of the firms profitability and it is a broadly used method measuring firms success, as it is determined return to equity in theory(Financial Management – Kaplan Publishers 2009).However, EPS doesnt expose the firms wealth since it is determined by using firms net profits. Therefore EPS is also exist the same criticism as profit maximisation above which will be discussing in the later part of the report. During the past ten years have seen a much greater emphasis on investor related goals. The conflict of ownership and control can be recognised as one of the significant causes which were affected investors and the world economy in the past ten years. The corporate scandals such as Enron, Maxwell and World com which occurred recent past had been lost investors confidence towards capital markets. Therefore its essential to consider the ethical behaviour and social responsibilities towards shareholder wealth maximisation simultaneously. It can also be said the institutional investors such as insurance companies and pension funds had also made a significant influence on investor related goals in the recent past. Review of Literature OBJECTIVE OF PROFIT MAXIMISATION According to Watson and Head 2007, whilst individuals manage their own cash flows, the financial manager involves in managing cash flows on behalf of the company, and its owners. In a firm financial management is concerned with taking decisions in three key areas which are financing, investing and dividend policy. Watson and Head also mentioned, shareholders wealth maximisation as the primary objective of the firm and at the same time the existence of other stakeholder groups such as creditors, employees, customers and community are also affected when adapting to a corporate goal. â€Å"However the firm may adopt one or several objectives in short term whilst its pursued the objective of shareholders wealth maximisation in long term†(Basely and Brigham; Essentials of Managerial Finance). Therefore it is essential to be considered the other possible objectives in short term as well as long term simultaneously. Reviewing one of the main objectives of profit maximisation, a classic article of Milton Friedman in the New York Times magazine 1970â€Å"The social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its profits† (Poitras, Geoffrey 1994). Considering classical views of Friedman (1970), Grant (1991), and Danley(1991), Geoffrey analysed the connection between shareholders wealth maximisation and profit maximisation, as an foundation for establishing an ethical analysis for shareholders wealth maximisation. However, Friedman had a moderate view later relating to the concept of profit maximisation towards social responsibilities. (Pradip N Khandwalla, Management paradigms beyond profit maximisation 2004) While there were similarities between these two objectives, Solomon; 1963, chp.2 highlighted the inconsistencies in his classic article (Poitras, Geoffrey 1994). Considering the above views from different authors, Geoffreys suggestion was â€Å"Even though there are significant consistencies between these two goals, the goal of profit maximisation has designed for the traditional microeconomic environment and for the firms which do not have the conflict of ownership and control. It is also assumed that its applied for the environment where there was no uncertainty and no stock issues†( Poitras, Geoffrey, 1994). According to Keown, Martin and Petty, 2008; Lasher 2008; Ross Westerfield, and Jordan; 2008, â€Å"Managers are encouraged to maximise its current stock prices by the shareholder theory, therefore the criticisms are understandable†. This approach determines the existence of agency problem towards incentive schemes, as incentives are rewarded with the continuous growth of share price and leads to an unethical behaviour of managers, towards manipulating the firms current stock prices (Daniel, Heck Shaffer). CONFLICT OF OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL The conflict of ownership and control was first identified by Adam Smith (RBS Review 1937) and he suggested that the Director cannot protect the other peoples money with the same way that he protects his money (Tony Howell; Shareholder ship model versus Stakeholder ship model). Its also mentioned in Tony and Howells article, that the separation of ownership and control make a significant influence for corporate behaviour and its deeply discussed by Berle and Means (1932). But La Porta et al. (1999) argued against Berle and Means, and he suggested â€Å"its different from the large corporations, because the shareholders of large corporations involved in corporate governance actively where managers are unaccountable† (Tony and Howell; shareholder ship model versus Stakeholder ship model). Winch (1971) suggested the goal of profit maximisation is consistent with the ethical theory of utilitarianism whilst allocating resources under different circumstances. (Poitras, Geoffrey 1994). Having considered Winchs suggestion related to the utilitarian theory and profit maximisation, Geoffreys   (1994) view was that, inter temporal behaviour is important   for firms and efficient investment has a significant affect towards maximising of profits as a result of uncertain future cash flows. It is also discussed the potential conflict of ownership and control. Therefore Geoffrey (1994) suggested the separation of ownership, the decision makers (managers) and owners (shareholders) are involved to the corporate structure. SHAREHOLDERS Vs STAKEHOLDERS Even though most of the economists and authors acknowledge the theory of shareholder wealth maximisation (Berle and Means, 1932; Friedman, 1962), other authors argued the criticisms of shareholder wealth maximisation. They argued that Shareholder Theory encourages the managers to make short term decisions and behave unethically as a result of the influence of the other stakeholders. According to Smith (2003) believed â€Å"Shareholder theory is prepared to maximise short term objectives at the expense of long term goals† (Daniel, Heck Shaffer; Journal of Applied Finance; winter 2008). However Daniel, Heck and Shaffer analysed the reasons for the criticism and the misguidance of the shareholders theory in their article about shareholder theory, â€Å"How Opponents and Proponents Both Get it Wrong?† The misguidance has been occurred as a result of pursuing a long term objective in shareholder theory. Managers should maximise the future cash flows and its important to con sider the stakeholders accordingly (Jensen, 2002; Sundaram and Inkpen, 2004a). According to Freeman (1984) a firm should consider both shareholders and stakeholders when making their business decisions. However Daniel, Heck and Shaffer describes that the stakeholder theory determines the same criticism as short term behaviour but the shareholder theory has got the protection for both shareholders and stakeholders in the long run. â€Å"Therefore stakeholder theory is not predominant to shareholder theory†. Daniel, Heck and Shaffer suggested the expected future cash flows to analyse the above scenario and they argued that its essential to undertake all the positive NPV projects to maximise shareholders wealth analysing towards maximising current stock price. If there was a goal of increasing of current share price, managers who are rewarded by incentives may attempt to boost the stock price of the firm. However Jenson (2005) and Danielson and press (2006) argued â€Å"the eff ort to increase or maintain the stock prices by management could be destroyed the long term values of the firm by manipulation, unethical behaviour, delaying NPV positive projects, reducing or not spending on research and development.† Jenson has taken Enron as an example for explaining the above scenario. The management of Enron had hidden their debts through off balance sheet activities and by manipulating the company accounts (Daniel, Heck and Shaffer). Therefore Daniel, Heck and Shaffer suggested that its essential to design strategies which are consistent with the objective of increasing future cash flows rather than adopting an objective of increasing of current stock price to maximise the wealth of shareholders. Freeman, Wicks and Parmar (2004) argued that â€Å"all the recent business scandals are oriented toward ever increasing shareholder value at the expense of other stakeholders† (Poitras, Jefforey; 1994) After a number of high profile firms collapsed i:e: Enron, WorldCom and Arthur Anderson in US and Maxwell, Polly Peck, BCCI, Barings bank in UK, its been determined the requirement of a good Corporate Governance (Tony Howell; the shareholder ship model versus stakeholder ship model). According to Tony Howell, Corporate Governance has been growing for the past 25 years and the foundation for Corporate Governance was placed, after the introduction of Cadbury report in 1992 (UK). Omran et. al.2002; Mills, 1998; Fera, 1997 suggested â€Å"the importance of Corporate Governance as a result of the new entrance of Institutional Investors to Capital markets, Globalisation of Capital markets, increase of Stakeholder and Shareholder expectations†(Tony and Howell). Analysis According to financial management theory, its assumed that the fundamental objective for a firm is to maximise shareholders wealth (Watson Head 2007).   Analysing the suggestions and arguments towards fundamental objective, it can be seen that not only in theory but also in the real world it is essential to maximise the wealth of shareholder. Analysing the objective of profit maximisation, overriding the classical economics views by Hayek (1960) and Friedman (1970), other authors, Solomon (1963) and Geoffrey (1970) argued about the criticisms associated with the objective of maximisation of profits. The conflict of short term goal of profit maximisation and long term objective of shareholder wealth maximisation can be identified as the main conflict. If a firm adapts to an objective of profit maximisation and the managers are rewarded incentives for achieving it, the agency problem could be arise. Therefore in such a situation managers may take decisions towards their own selfish interests, rather than on shareholders. Achieving their self interest managers may reduce costs by cutting research and development costs, reducing quality control measurements, reduce advertising, using lower quality materials. At the same time the NPV positive projects could also be postponed to reduce their costs to determine more profits in s hort term. Producing low quality products, losing market share, losing customer trust on their products and finally reducing financial performance could be resulted as a result of using low cost strategies. It may lead the business towards insecure stock prices in long run. The other criticism is profit maximisation does not appraise the associated risks. Therefore managers may undertake higher NPV projects to determine higher returns. â€Å"However higher the required returns, higher the risk† (Peter Atrill; Financial Management for Decision Makers, 2008). Investing on risky projects will result future cash flow problems. However, shareholders are assumed as rational investors who provide finance for firms to invest in future projects. As rational investors they require a reasonable return for their investments. Therefore it can be suggested that objective of profit maximising is different from the wealth maximising. Even though shareholder wealth maximisation is the fundamental, firms are not being able to reject the profit perspective goals, because there are stakeholder groups who is interesting about financial activities in a firm. In addition to shareholders, Managers, Employees, Customers, Suppliers, finance providers and the community at large are included in the typical stakeholder group. Therefore its essential to take account of profit maximisation within the firm. As a result of these multiple objectives managers can easily pursue their own interest. In real world, financial statements are used to assess firms performance. However, profits are defined as profit before interest and tax, profit after interest and so on. Therefore the ratio of Earnings per Share is often used instead of profit which is calculated using the net profits and the number of shares issued. Investors usually use EPS as a measurement of valuing stock. EPS is mostly used as it contains of net income of the firm, and it is also used as an indicator measuring firms future cash flows. Although the disadvantage is EPS does not determine shareholders wealth. However, firms value should be determined by the future cash flows and the risk also need to be considered which is associated to the cash flow. However as mentioned earlier, profits does not take account of risks. I:e:â€Å"Reported profit figures such as Biotechnological companies and other new economy ventures have insignificant relationship on its stock prices† (Financial Management –Kaplan Publishers, 2009). Therefore, in the short term theres an inconsistence between profit maximisation and increase in stock prices in a firm. According to Smith (1937), Berle and Means (1932) and Geoffrey (1994) the separation of ownership is involved the corporate structure. The conflict was mostly seen during the recent past, following the corporate scandals. According to Maria and William in the article of Privatisation and the Rise of Global Capital Markets (Financial Management; winter, 2000) â€Å"The past years there was significant growth in capital markets valuation, growth in security issuance as a result of the privatisation programmes†. The impacts of share issue privatisation are increasing market liquidity, pattern of share ownership (i:e: Individual and institutional investors such as Pension funds and Insurance Companies), and increasing of number of shareholders in many countries. However, globalisation was also affected on firms activities simultaneously. Therefore the firms (i:e: Enron Maxwell), which had poor Corporate Governance had the possibility to involving in unethical activities such as creative accounting and off balance sheet finance(Financial Management, Kaplan Publishers; 2009). At the same time Directors involved in high level of corporate takeover activities, achieving their personal interest such as empire building, large remuneration packages (Financial Management, Kaplan publishers; 2009). Further analysis of Stakeholder theory and Shareholder theory by different authors, Jenson â€Å"2005) and Daniel and Press (2006) argued the criticism of stakeholder theory, whilst Daniel, Heck and Shaffer (2008) and Freeman (1984) argued the importance of both shareholder and stakeholder theory. However, it can be suggested that the stakeholders play a significant role towards increasing shareholders value. As an example to motivate employees of the firm, they should be treated in a good manner by rewarding increments, bonuses and so on. Long term employee satisfaction could drive the firm towards higher performance and the development of the business by increasing higher productivity and better quality of products. Simultaneously, building up a trust among customers and acquire and maintain the industry leadership. At the same time shareholders provide finance for firms for its working capital management and noncurrent assets for its future projects. Therefore it can be seen an inter relationship and importance of shareholders and the other stakeholders. According to Peter Atrill, (Financial Management for Decision makers , 2008)â€Å"In the early years financial management theory was mainly developed as part of accounting and the suggestions and arguments were based on casual observations rather than theoretical frame work†. But after the number of high profile firms collapsed, the requirement of corporate governance occurred. Number of committees met and discussed to improve the Corporate Governance and the main concern was the conflict between shareholders interest and managers. Enron was the seventh largest listed company in US when its collapsed in 2001 as a result of manipulation of financial statements. Its affected to shareholders, more than 20000 employees worldwide, creditors and customers (Janis Sarra; St Johns Law Review ; Enrons Repercussion in Canada). The 11 titled â€Å"Sarbanes Oxley Act 2002† CONLUSION By analysing the review of literature, it can be suggested that its essential to maximise shareholder value rather than maximising profits alone. However maximising profit is also can be defined as a performance measurement of a healthy business. Extremes of profit maximisation can also be caused unethical behaviour of management towards its shareholders and stakeholders. Although, Earnings per Share inconsistent with the long term value of shareholder, its still can be used as a performance measurement, since its got firms net profit. As a result of recent corporate scandals such as Enron, WorldCom and Arthur Anderson, shareholders and other stakeholder groups had given much emphasis on corporate behaviour. The unethical and illegal behaviour of those high profiled firms were lost investor confidence of capital markets. They identified the importance of Corporate Governance which provides the â€Å"road map† for managers to follow, pursuing different objectives towards the firm (Basley Brigham). At the same time the arrival of Sarbanes Oxley Act 2002 provided investors a much more confidence and strength towards capital markets. However, stakeholders are also important for firms. They are also treated well for the to maintain a Even there are conflicts between stakeholder theory and Shareholder theory, it‘s necessary to balance these two theories. According to Cathy Haywards article (Black – hole sums; Financial Management May 2003), during the period of May 2003 the pension funds in US and UK were in a bad condition. According to the assessment of National Association of Pension Funds, there was a drop in UK pension funds by more than  £250 million in 2002. Its being told that there were many reasons for the crisis but, the huge drop in stock market during the economic down turn 2000-2003 has mainly been affected. The pensions funds are heavily depend on the dividend payments and the stability of the equity markets, as a result of the drop in share prices the pensions funds struggled to meet their obligations. References Besley Brigham â€Å"Essentials of Managerial Finance† Daniel, Heck Shaffer Journal of Applied Finance; Fall Winter 2008 – Shareholder theory,  Ã‚   â€Å"How Opponents and Proponents Both Get it Wrong?† Denzil Watson Antony Head â€Å"Corporate Finance (electronic resource): principles and practice 2007 â€Å"Management paradigms beyond profit maximisation† – Colloquium a debate by S K Chakraboty, Verghese Kurien, Jittu Singh, Mrityunjay Athreya, Arun Maira, Anu Aga, and Anil K Gupta. Maria K. Boutchkova William L. Megginson â€Å"Privatisation and Rise of Global Capital Markets† , Financial Management;   Winter, 2000, p31-76 Peter Atrill â€Å"Financial Management for Decision Makers† 5th Edition 2008 (electronic resource) Poitras, Geoffrey â€Å"Share Holder wealth Maximisation, Business ethics and social responsibility, Journal of Business Ethics; feb 1994;13,2;ABI/INFORM Global pg125 Rebecca Stratling â€Å"The Legitamacy of Corporate Social Responsibility† ; Corporate Ownership and Control; Volume 4; Issue 4, Summer 2007 Tony Ike Nwanji, Kerry E. Howell; â€Å"A review of the two main competing models of Corporate Governance: The Shareholder ship model versus the Stakeholder ship model; Corporate Ownership and Control, Volume 5, Issue 1, Fall 2007